NSF CCLI Grant
NSF grant# 9952484, "Adapting Field Based Science to Education at Newberry National Volcanic Monument, the Deschutes River and the Southern Oregon Coast."
Abstract
This proposal adapts environmental monitoring equipment, including global positioning systems (GPS), sonar, electronic water quality devices, bottom sampling (coring, dredging), water chemistry test kits and scuba equipment to implement field-based, multi-faceted science projects for undergraduate oceanography and geology courses taught at Central Oregon Community College. This equipment enables restructuring of the lab component of several science courses to include field experiments and projects using modern oceanographic equipment and techniques.
This proposal is based upon research conducted at the Keck Geology consortium (Manduca, 1996) whereby structuring hands-on and small group field research activities using field equipment for real life data gathering situations, students have demonstrated deeper conceptual understanding and confidence in dealing with quantitative data. They have learned how to design and carry out all phases of scientific investigation. The pedagogical value of field based small group projects has also been substantiated in other science courses such as environmental science (de Wet, 1994) and at other inland lake locations (Smith, 1995)
A variety of field sites used include the volcanic lakes located in Newberry National Volcanic Monument, the scenic reach of the Deschutes river located near the college, and South Slough National Estuarine Reserve located on the southern Oregon coast. The field based approach enables students to receive high quality, intellectually stimulating educational experiences that engages them in the collection of meaningful scientific data, provides opportunities for students to apply their knowledge to solving realistic problems in science, and increases student confidence with modern technology including quantitative applications. The target audience includes nontraditional students enrolled in K-12 education and applied science programs. Eighty to one hundred students annually participate in the affected courses. Student projects provide meaningful data with which to characterize and monitor the lakes, rivers and estuaries in Oregon.
The success of this curriculum restructuring is assessed by using pre- and post- course concept inventory testing, similar to that used by Deslaughter (1998), project evaluation by the PI, peer evaluations, and train and trade exercises (Smith, 1995) used to gain familiarity with equipment. Exemplary projects are publicized through meetings and journals of American Geophysical Union and Geological Society of America. The framework of this curriculum is designed to be readily adapted to any lake, river or coastal environment and to a variety of scientific disciplines.
Total project cost: $41,570: Non-NSF contribution: $20,785: NSF request: $20,785
Proposal Narrative
a) Current Situation
Central Oregon Community College (COCC) is a comprehensive public college that offers academic and professional-technical programs. The college is the only post-secondary institution in a 120 mile radius of Bend, Oregon and serves a large rural area of 10,000 square miles. Its mission is to provide affordable and accessible education to over 128,600 district residents. Current enrollment figures show 3,751 students enrolled for credit and 3,167 in non-credit and continuing education courses. Baccalaureate and graduate degree programs are delivered to the area through the University Center, a cooperative effort of several higher education institutions in Oregon which is housed at COCC. The Science department has 8 full-time faculty that teach a diverse and comprehensive set of lower division science courses in physical and biological sciences.
A survey of this year's students who are enrolled in science courses affected by this curriculum enhancement program indicates that 35% of the population are nontraditional (over 25 yr. old or parents) and 54% are women. Nontraditional students, in particular, are constrained by family and job obligations that make weekend travel difficult. The average age of all students enrolled at COCC is 31. In addition, students are categorized into four different degree programs. Thirty-two percent are enrolled in K-12 education degree programs, 28% in applied science programs (e.g., fire science, geographical information systems), 26 % in liberal arts (other than education) and 14% in science. This proposed curriculum reform considers the demographics of this student population.
click here to view background survey results for Spring 2000 GS108 oceanography class
COCC will address one of the most challenging problems in teaching science: to provide meaningful experiences that allow students to transfer abstract concepts into realistic applications. This challenge is especially great for teaching introductory level science courses to non-science majors (Orlich, et. al, 1985). In addition, oceanography and geology are fundamentally field-based sciences. Therefore, it is important to provide hand-on experiences that reflect the true nature of these disciplines. Laboratory settings have traditionally provided the means for "hands-on" activities that help reinforce the lecture component of science courses. However, lab experiments tend to be isolated pieces of a scientific investigation or gross oversimplifications that do not effectively reinforce or integrate a concept with a realistic application (Karabinos, et. al, 1992). This is particularly challenging when it comes to designing high quality lab experiences for oceanography where the campus is located far from the ocean.
This curriculum development project will modify the laboratory approach dramatically by designing an educational environment that allows students to participate in all phases of a scientific investigation. This environment will be field-based and involve student-designed projects that include a significant component of data gathering and analysis using modern scientific equipment and techniques. The resulting interpretations will be based upon the application of fundamental scientific principles to student-generated data. Accordingly, the objectives of this curriculum enhancement program are to provide high quality, stimulating educational experiences that (1) engage students in the collection of meaningful scientific data, (2) provide opportunities for students to apply their knowledge to solving realistic problems in science, and (3) increase student confidence and interest in science. In addition, the student-designed projects will provide meaningful data that will be used to characterize and monitor the natural lakes in central Oregon. Catalog descriptions and recent enrollment figures for the courses affected by this proposal are provided in Appendices II and III.
b) Development Plan
This curriculum development program is centered around the idea that hands-on, project-oriented activities help solidify concepts and promote effective transfer of knowledge to problem-solving (Manduca, 1996). Within the domains of geology and oceanography much of the modern observation and sampling techniques are obtained in the field. Accordingly, students ought to have an exposure to similar experiences. In order to incorporate more field-based activities into the current curriculums of geology and oceanography, major restructuring of the lab components will be necessary and a significant amount of modern equipment will be required.
Four of the existing 2 hour/week labs in GS 108 introductory oceanography and two 3 hour/week labs in each of the three G 201/202/203 geology courses will be replaced by several half-day field data collecting activities and supplemented with open lab time so that students can work on processing and interpreting their field data. As an initial feasibility test of this concept, a sequel oceanography course, G 232 coastal oceanography, was implemented two years ago. This is an interdisciplinary, team-taught course which incorporates studies from geology, physical oceanography and biology to develop an in-depth understanding of the oceans' coastal areas. The course was designed to emphasize field work and provided opportunities for more advanced student projects, including direct underwater observations and sampling. Much of the logistics associated with field-based projects were worked out in this course. Its limiting factor thus far has been the lack of field equipment with which to conduct varied and comprehensive field projects.
Field projects for all courses will be organized around small group surveys of lakes, rivers and estuaries using readily portable water craft. Specifically, students will be engaged in collecting, processing and interpreting:
(1) bathymetric data using a combination of electronic sonar and GPS and; (2) water quality data at numerous sites with a multi-parameter electronic water quality probe and chemical field test kits. Other activities will include direct sampling and geologic interpretation of bottom sediment and rock using coring and dredging, underwater photography and scuba equipment (for G232 coastal oceanography only).
Students will gain competency in the use of a variety of equipment through peer "train and trade" exercises (supervised by faculty). During the course of a field collection session, students will rotate through several stations including water craft navigation, GPS/bathymetry, bottom sampling, and water quality measurements. As each person rotates to another station the previous person will instruct the next user in the operation of the equipment at that station. Back in the lab, students will process the bathymetric and water quality data using computers and produce a variety of bathymetric and water quality profiles.
The equipment will allow students to conduct experiments designed to collect relevant oceanographic style data in a variety of inland and coastal aquatic environments. This type of field activity has been tested at other inland lakes, and the results indicate a significant increase in group cooperation and transfer of knowledge to problem solving for students with little experience in science (Smith, 1995). At COCC, additional variety and flexibility in field sites will be made available by the use of portable water craft and equipment suitable to use in a wide variety of aquatic environments. This multi-faceted approach of field observation and data analysis will help to develop process-oriented thinking and problem solving skills (deWet, 1994). Moreover, the small group nature of the projects will ensure that all students take an active part in each phase of the project and promote teamwork.
The sites most suitable for this project include Paulina and East lakes located at the summit of Newberry volcano within the Newberry National Volcanic Monument. Newberry volcano is reasonably close to Bend (50 km) and accessible by paved roads. The lakes are an environmentally sensitive part of the national monument (Newberry National Volcanic Monument Recreation Comprehensive Management Plan: Final ElS, 1994). The lakes are deep (up to 75 m), clear (typically over 15 m), hydrologically isolated and supplied in part by thermal springs (Johnson et. al., 1985). The summit caldera is structurally complex and exposes a wide variety of rock types and eruptive products (Jensen and Chitwood, 1996; Fitterman, 1988). Although the surficial geology of the volcano has been documented (MacLeod et. al., 1995), little is known of the lakes' bottom topography and geology nor of short and long term variations in the physical parameters of the water column in each lake. To date, only reconnaissance level hydrologic studies have been undertaken.
A variety of educational-based science projects similar to scientific studies conducted at nearby Crater Lake National Park (Larsen, et. al., 1996; Nelson, et. al., 1994) is possible at this location. For example, from late spring to late fall, activities such as depth soundings, water column temperature and oxygen profiles, and lake bottom sediment and rock sampling could be undertaken by students. In the winter, climatological data, outflow, and ice and snow pack surveys could routinely be monitored, together with "through the ice" water column measurements. Additional opportunities for internships at the monument visitor center are being explored with the Deschutes National Forest (Larry Chitwood, Senior DNF geologist, personal communication).
Reconnaissance work by the PI and four students conducted the past two summers points to a wealth of geological detail. An inflatable boat was used to test a student-designed and built gravity corer. These cores revealed considerable vertical variation in the types of volcanic ash on the lake's bottom. In addition, in situ examination of the lakes' floors using scuba equipment has provided evidence of a submerged volcanic dome and a paleo-shoreline located 19 m below the current lake level (Reynolds et. al., 1998). This, together with preliminary bathymetric maps, provides direct evidence that the lakes' bottoms are varied and complex and host a substantial record of past eruptive activity and hydrologic change.
Two other sites are also proposed for field projects. The scenic reach of the Deschutes river as it runs through Bend, Oregon is the focus of expanding recreation and development in central Oregon. In view of these environmental pressures, citizens have become concerned over the health of the river. By monitoring the water quality of the river at several points, COCC students can contribute important scientific data useful in land use planning. Of particular interest will be the monitoring of flow rate (discharge), water temperature and dissolved oxygen and suspended sediment load. Biannual trips by COCC science students to the South Slough National Estuarine Reserve located on the southern Oregon coast near Coos Bay, Oregon have been the focus of geology and oceanography field study for the past several years. The area is especially well-suited to field work because of the variety of well exposed geologic structures, paleo earthquake evidence and numerous sites of coastal erosion. In addition, the estuary is a model of estuary reclamation and the site of commercial oyster beds which have been threatened by oil pollution from the recent maritime disaster of the New Carrisa. At this location students will conduct projects similar to those undertaken at the lakes in central Oregon as well as projects unique to the estuary. Convenient accommodations and lab facilities are available at the Oregon Institute of Marine Biology field station.
Owing to the normally inaccessible conditions posed by deep, cold waters, remote sensing and sampling have become major components of modern oceanographic and limnologic research (Larson et. al., 1996). Accordingly, the equipment requested in this proposal is similar in type and quality to that used in oceanographic and limnologic surveys (Gubala et. al, 1994). The detailed spatial and temporal characterization of the water column will provide a valuable database for identifying important hydrologic parameters of the lakes, river and estuary. In addition, the sediment and rock samples will help to characterize the geologic changes that have occurred at the summit of Newberry volcano, episodes of ancient river flooding along the Deschutes and provide a more detailed record of paleo-tsunami deposits in the estuary. As a result, scientific knowledge of the lakes, river and estuary will dramatically increase by employing this equipment. Overall, this project will provide a variety of exciting opportunities for students to investigate the dynamic hydrologic, geologic and ecological factors that affect the trophic state of volcanic lakes, rivers and estuaries. The multidisciplinary nature of oceanography/limnology make it especially easy to expand opportunities for faculty and students in chemistry and biology. In addition, recent discussions with faculty at Oregon State University indicate a high interest in collaborating with COCC on lake studies in central Oregon (Bob Collier and Kelly Falkner, personal communication).
c) Equipment
Spatial positioning equipment
The accurate determination of location and depth is an important part of oceanographic and limnologic studies. Depth data are routinely used to construct bathymetric maps and profiles and to interpret the structural and geomorphic features of lake and sea bottoms. Instruction, therefore, will be designed around students achieving a thorough understanding of sonic travel time and spatial positioning and their applications. Sonar is the most appropriate piece of equipment for bathymetric surveys. This equipment must be weatherproof, have a real time display, be capable of depth readings to at least 100 m, and have the ability to interface with global positioning systems (GPS) and computer equipment.
Depth data is not very useful unless it is accurately referenced to a geographic coordinate system. Previous Oregon lake surveys have used a technique called constant velocity survey. In this method, a boat with depth finder charts a navigational path and attempts to maintain constant direction and speed while simultaneously recording depths. This type of survey is notoriously inaccurate because it is very difficult to maintain constant direction and speed. COCC's solution to this problem is to interface modern GPS technology with the sonar equipment such that geographic positioning and bathymetric data are recorded simultaneously and referenced to time. In fact, random navigational paths should improve the overall quality of bathymetric maps by allowing sampling of irregular shaped bodies of water. Differential correction of the GPS satellite signal to provide positional accuracy of less than 3 m is also necessary.
Recent development work by both marine electronic and GPS manufacturers is advancing and simplifying the compatibility among GPS, sonar and computer equipment. For example, a Furuno GP-1600F combination GPS-sonar was tested this past summer at Paulina lake. The equipment included a differential correction beacon (Furuno FBX II) and a NEMA 0183, RS232 serial port for external data output. The GPS-sonar was connected to a Macintosh Powerbook 1400. NEMA data strings were collected in real time using GPSy software and stored in ASCII format on the computer. This equipment was useful for locating high relief lake floor features and for conducting bathymetric traverses across the lake. Its spatial accuracy varied from 5-15 m making it of limited use for compiling accurate bathymetric maps of the lake. A higher quality GPS-sonar system such as that evaluated by Gubala, et. al (1994) should help improve spatial accuracy and resulting map quality.
Furuno GP-1600F combination GPS-sonar and FBX II differential correction beacon connected to a Macintosh Powerbook 1400
Electronic water column sampling equipment
Sampling of a variety of water properties is another major component of oceanographic and limnologic surveys. Modern technologies use electronic probes (commonly known as CTDs) that are lowered into the water and from which a variety of water properties are measured in situ as the probe is moved through the water column. This data is used to characterize the vertical variation in water properties. By logging water properties both spatially and temporally, a set of water column profiles can be compiled and a comprehensive characterization of the 3-dimensional nature of the water body obtained. This proposal requests a modern electronic water quality logging system (such as the Aquacheck 51601). The equipment is capable of simultaneous multi-parameter sampling (depth, pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature and conductivity) in shallow to deep water environments, and capable of storing data for subsequent transfer to computers. Chemical test kits will also be used to supplement the electronic equipment and to sample for pollutants.
Hydrolab Surveyor 4A + Minisonde multi-parameter water quality analyser (right)
ICM Turbidimeter (left) and Scott 4L vertical deep water sample bottle (right)
Computer applications equipment
Mapping and graphing software are needed in order to process the field data into meaningful profiles and maps. Rendering of simple profiles can employ spreadsheet software such as Excel and Deltagraph and will be used with introductory level science students. More sophisticated bathymetric maps and profiles will require gridding and contouring software. A user-friendly mapping and contouring program such as Rockworks or Surfer is requested for these more advanced applications. Both of these programs generate 3-dimensional contour maps and cross sectional profiles from a variety of data formats. Independent faculty and student research projects involving large data sets will be processed at COCC's Geographic Information System (GIS) lab using ARC Info and other sophisticated GIS software.
Traditional sampling equipment
Not all sampling can be conducted by electronic means. In fact, direct sampling complements electronic sampling by providing additional characterization of waters and sediments. This equipment will include a gravity coring device capable of obtaining sediment cores of up to 2 meters, a dredge for sampling hard substrates, a water flow meter for measuring tidal flux and river discharge, and secchi disks for water transparency measurements. A digital camera is also requested for documenting field activity and compiling computer generated presentations of student projects.
Wildco gravity corer and Ponar dredge
Water craft
In order to provide access to a variety of aquatic environments while providing a stable platform for the instruments and students, a water craft of substantial capacity is required. Comparable projects at Crater lake, Oregon (Larsen, et. al, 1996) and lake Winnebago in Wisconsin (Smith, 1995) have used large (9-12 m long) metal hull pontoon boats. The advantage of a metal hull pontoon boat is that it provides a large and sturdy platform. These water craft, however, are not readily transportable to remote, undeveloped areas, and are expensive. Alternatively, inflatable boats are easy to transport to a variety of remote locations, but are limited in size. COCC's solution is to combine the best of both water craft by obtaining a 8 m-long inflatable pontoon boat, such as the Demaree Industries Snout, used by expeditions to transport heavy loads. Such a boat could be easily transported to a lake in a small trailer and then assembled on site. A 2 m x 3 m trailer and 20 HP outboard motor are also requested.
21ft Pontoon boat
Diving equipment
Scuba diving (G 232 coastal oceanography only) provides one of the best methods for direct sampling and observation of aquatic environments and complements single station, coring and dredging by allowing examination of the geology in situ and over a larger area, thereby enhancing geologic interpretation. These visual observations and sample sites should also be documented with photography. An underwater video camera, such as the Ikelite-JVC system is requested to document aquatic substrates. In addition, underwater photography can be used to document temporal changes at selected sites without disturbing bottom features.
Because some of the field locations are remotely located, air supply service is not readily available. Diving-related experiments therefore need to be concentrated in terms of personnel and equipment so that frequent trips to refill air tanks (available at the Deschutes County Sheriff's Department) in Bend is not required. To solve this problem a portable, high pressure air compressor is requested. The compressor will be carried on the trailer and tanks filled at the field sites. Although expensive, we believe that this scuba support equipment will see extensive use by COCC students who take college sponsored science and recreational diving courses and by collaborating Oregon State University researchers conducting underwater projects such as those at nearby Crater Lake (Gary Larson, personal communication).
Ikelite underwater video housing and JVC camcorder (left). Nikonos IV 35 mm underwater camera, strobe and closeup lens attactment (right).
MaxAir 35 high pressure air compressor
Equipment on Hand for the Project. The following equipment is specifically available in the Science department for use and is not included in the budget request: (1) Eight Macintosh 7200 computers, a Macintosh Powerbook 1400 laptop computer, digitizing tablet, and color scanner. (2) 10 regulators with depth and pressure gauges, compasses; 10 buoyancy compensators; 10 80 cu ft air tanks. (3) College vans and annual budget ($ 2,500) to transport students to the field sites. (4) The Deschutes National Forest (DNF) has granted permission to COCC to conduct the work proposed. In addition, on-site camping and lodging have been granted to COCC.
Implementation and Equipment Maintenance. Each piece of equipment is factory designed for rugged, wet, oceanic conditions. Students and field assistants will be trained in the use, care and upkeep of each piece of the equipment. In addition, the annual budget for geology includes $2,000 for supplies and repairs.
d) Faculty Expertise
Robert W. Reynolds is professor for the geology sequence and oceanography courses taught at COCC. His specific areas of research interest include physical volcanology, structural geology of large calderas, volcanic hazards and the geochemical and petrologic evolution of shallow magma chambers. Reynolds has organized and conducted three extended field expeditions to the Galapagos islands that have included undergraduate students. Under his direction students have completed projects in geochemistry, paleomagnetism, hydrology and volcanic hazards. Reynolds has also worked as a field crew chief on regional geologic mapping projects for the Idaho Geological Survey and is knowledgeable in the use of GIS and GPS technology. In addition, Reynolds has seven years of experience as a well-site geologist in the energy industry, where he worked on dynamically positioned drill ships and offshore platforms world wide. He is particularly knowledgeable of coring techniques, bottom hole fluid sampling and computerized real time monitoring of drilling fluids. Over the past five years Reynolds has been teaching college science courses at COCC which have included oceanography, physics, environmental science, mineralogy physical geology and historical geology. Moreover, Reynolds is an adjunct assistant professor with the University of Oregon and has taught U of O geology courses through COCC's University Center. A summary of recent publications accompanies the biographical sketch.
e) Dissemination and Evaluation.
This curriculum enhancement will be evaluated against student success in the modified courses. Concept inventory assessments similar to the science literacy tests of DeLaaughter, et. al. (1998) will be compiled for students both before and after the courses. These assessments help to diagnose flaws and misconceptions in understanding concepts, logical contradictions, and use of irrelevant information in the thought process. In addition, each component of student projects including design, data collection, data processing, interpretation will be evaluated by the PI to assess student understanding of scientific principles. In order to assess participation, students will grade each others projects and participation in a fashion akin to that developed by Wiswall and Srogi (1995), whereby students present their results to fellow classmates during the last week of class in a “mini” scientific conference. Students with exemplary projects will present their results to Deschutes National Forest scientists and participate with faculty in writing publications for professional journals. Two methods of tracking student success after completing the courses have already been implemented and will be further expanded. First, students are encouraged to assist with ongoing faculty research and second, announcements of monthly field activities are provided on Reynolds's Web site. Throughout the courses faculty will evaluate students' confidence in the use of modern technology as observed during train and trade exercises. Student surveys will also be used to assess student's affective domain response to the enhanced curriculum.
Broad scale dissemination of the results of this program will occur via several avenues. First, the Deschutes National Forest has expressed interest in integrating the scientific information into the interpretative programs offered at the national monument. Already a video of the research in progress on lake level change at Newberry volcano has been prepared and presented to the Deschutes National Forest Lava Lands Interpretative Center. Moreover, the Oregon Public Broadcasting System is preparing a documentary on Newberry National Monument which will include a segment on the work done by COCC faculty and students. In addition, Reynolds' Web site is used to distribute information to the public concerning the scientific and educational aspects of the program. All of these activities have involved students. The PI will also write summary articles on the educational aspects of the program to offer advice to other faculty on replicating the endeavor at other locations.
This curriculum enhancement project will provide high quality, high interest activities for 80-100 students annually, the bulk of which are nontraditional and pursuing education and applied science degrees. Many of the skills and concepts are readily transferable to their majors. An important strength of this curriculum enhancement program is that it can be adapted to a variety of aquatic environments. Nearly every campus has access to nearby lakes and rivers and some have access to the coast. In addition, the program uses a multidisciplinary approach that is adaptable to include a array of scientific disciplines, thereby taking advantage of expertise available at each campus. In this program undergraduate students will be provided with unique opportunities to participate in all phases of scientific research. Furthermore, the equipment requested represents a novel application of how space based satellite positioning technology can be integrated with terrestrial bathymetric instrumentation and traditional sampling equipment to address water quality problems in the lakes, rivers and estuaries of Oregon.
3. References Cited.
DeLaughter, J. E., S. Stein, C. Stein and K. R. Bain, 1998, Preconceptions abound among students in an introductory earth science course: Eos, v. 79, no. 36, p. 429-432.
de Wet, A. P., 1994, Integrating field observation with physical and computer models in an introductory environmental geology course: Journal of Geological Education, v. 42, p. 264-271.
Fitterman, D. V., 1988, Overview of the structure and geothermal potential of Newberry volcano, Oregon: Journal of Geophysical Research, v. 93, p. 10,059-10,066.
Gubala, C. P., C. Branch, N. Roundy, D. Landers, 1994, Automated global positioning system charting of environmental attributes: a limnologic case study: Science of the Total Environment, v. 48, p. 83-92.
Jensen, R. A., and L. A. Chitwood, 1996, Evidence for recent uplift of caldera floor, Newberry volcano, Oregon: Eos, v. 77, no. 46, p. 792.
Karabinos, P., H. M. Stoll, and W. T. Fox, 1992, Attracting students to science through field exercises in introductory geology courses: Journal of Geological Education, v. 40, p. 302-305.
Larson, G. L., C. D. McIntire, M. Hurley, and M. W. Buktenica, 1996, Temperature, water chemistry and optical properties of Crater lake: Journal of Lake and Reservoir Management, v. 12, p. 230-247.
MacLeod, N. S., D. R. Sherrod, and L. A. Chitwood, 1995, Geologic map of Newberry volcano, Deschutes, Klamath and Lake counties, Oregon: U.S. Geological Survey Miscellaneous Investigations Map I-2455, scales 1:62,500 and 1:24,000.
Manduca, C., 1996, The value of undergraduate research experiences from Keck Geology Consortium alumni: Council on Undergraduate Research Quarterly, v. 16, no. 3, p 176-178.
Nelson, C. H., C. R. Bacon, S. W. Robinson, D. P. Adam, J. P. Bradbury, J. H. Barber, D. Schwartz, G. Vagenas, 1994, The volcanic, sedimentologic, and paleolimnologic history of the Crater Lake caldera floor, Oregon: evidence for small caldera evolution: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 106, p. 684-704.
Orlich, D. C., R. J. Harder, R. C. Callahan, C. H. Karvas, D. P. Kauchak, R. A. Pendergrass, and A. J. Keogh, 1985, Teaching Strategies: A guide to Better Instruction, D. C. Heath and Co., Lexington, MA., 379p.
Reynolds, R. W., D. Wienecke and J. Carr, 1998, Geology of Paulina lake bottom and its relation to Holocene activity at Newberry volcano: Eos, v. 79, no. 45, p. 976.
Smith, G. L., 1995, Using field and laboratory exercises on local water bodies to teach fundamental concepts in an introductory oceanography course: Journal of Geological Education, v. 43, p. 480-484.
Wiswall, C. G., and Srogi, L., 1995, Using writing in small groups to enhance learning: Journal of Geological Education, v. 43, p. 344-340.
